Bishop Shi is, or was, one of the last of a rare breed — Catholic bishops appointed by the Vatican decades ago who refused to cooperate with the state-sponsored Catholic Church, meant to supplant the church loyal to the pope.

Only a few are still living, many well into their 80s or 90s. At least one other is in custody, and two are under close government surveillance.

Their fate is one of the obstacles preventing China and the Vatican from re-establishing a centuries-old relationship that was severed with the Communist victory in 1949.